Grammar
Being part of the Indo-Aryan languages, Garhwali shares many elements of its grammar with other
Indo-Aryan languages, especially
Rajasthani,
Kashmiri and
Gujarati. It shares much of its grammar with the other
Pahari languages like
Kumaoni and
Nepali. The peculiarities of grammar in Garhwali and other Central Pahari languages exist due to the influence of the ancient language of the
Khasas, the first recorded inhabitants of the region and the root of Garhwali language.
In Garhwali the verb substantive is formed from the root ach, as in both
Rajasthani and
Kashmiri. In Rajasthani its present tense, being derived from the
Sanskrit present rcchami, I go, does not change for gender. But in
Pahari and Kashmiri it must be derived from the rare
Sanskrit particle *rcchitas, gone, for in these languages it is a participial tense and does change according to the gender of the subject. Thus, in the singular we have: – Here we have a relic of the old
Khasas language, which, as has been said, seems to have been related to Kashmiri. Other relics of Khasa, again agreeing with north-western India, are the tendency to shorten long vowels, the practice of epenthesis, the modification of a vowel by the one which follows in the next syllable, and the frequent occurrence of de-aspiration. Thus, Khas – siknu, Garhwali – sikhnu, but Hindi – sikhna, to learn; Garhwali – inu, plural – ina, of this kind.
| Khas-Kura | | Garhwali | | Kashmiri | | Nepali | |
|---|
| Gloss | Masc | Fem | Masc | Fem | Masc | Fem | Masc | Fem |
| Am | छु | चु | छौं | छौं | थुस | छेस | छु | छु |
| Are | छस | छेस | छैं/छै/छन | छैं/छै/छन | छुख | छेख | छन | छन |
| Is | छ | छे | छ/च | छ/च | छुह | छेह | छ | छे |
Linguistics
Morphology
Garhwali Pronouns
| Nominative | Oblique | Reflexive | Possessive determiner | Possessive pronoun |
|---|
| 1st pers. sing. | मी | म्येते | | म्यर | म्ये |
| 2nd pers. sing./pl. | तुम | त्वे/तुमते | | तुमुर | त्वे or तुमौ |
| 3rd pers. sing. | व, उ, इ, सि | वीँ, वे, ए, से | | वीँ, वे, ए, से | वीँ, वे, ए, से |
| 1st pers. pl. | हम | हमते | | हमर | हमौ |
| 3rd pers. pl. | उ | उँते | | उँ | ऊँ |
Garhwali Cases
| Written | Spoken (Low Speed) | Spoken (fluently) |
|---|
| Nominative | न/ल | न/ल | न्/ल् |
| Vocative | रे | रे | रे |
| Accusative | थे/थेकी/सणि | थे/थेकी/सणि | ते/ते/सन् |
| Instrumental | न/ल/चे | न/ल/चे | न्/ल्/चे |
| Dative | खुण/बाना | कुन/बाना | कु/बान् |
| Ablative | न/ल/चे/मनन/चुले/बटिन | न/ल/चे/मनन/चुले/बटिन | न्/ल्/चे/मनन्/चुले/बटि |
| Genitive | ऑ/ई/ऊ/ऎ | ऑ/ई/ऊ/ऎ | ऑ/ई/ऊ/ऎ |
| Locative | म/फुण्ड/फर | म/फुण्/फर | म्/पुन्/पर् |
Numerals
| Number | Numeral | Written | RTGS | IPA |
|---|
| 0 | ० | सुन्ने | sunne | /sunnɨ/ |
| 1 | १ | यऽक | yak | /yʌk/ |
| 2 | २ | दुई | dui | /du’ī/ |
| 3 | ३ | तीन | teen | /tɪnə/ |
| 4 | ४ | चार | char | /carə/ |
| 5 | ५ | पाँच | paanch or paa~ | /pʌ~ç/ or //pʌ~/ |
| 6 | ६ | छॉ | chhaw | /tʃʰɔ/ |
| 7 | ७ | सात | saat | /sʌtə/ |
| 8 | ੮ | आठ | aath | /a:ṭə/ |
| 9 | ९ | नउ | nau | /nəu/ |
Phonology
Phone or Phonem
Vowels
Monophonic vowels
There are many theories used to explains how many
Monophthongs are used in the Garhwali language. The Non-Garhwali Indian scholars with some Garhwali scholars (who believes Garhwali as a dialect of Hindi) who follows Common Hindustani phonology argue that there are eight vowels found within the language are ə, ɪ, ʊ, ɑ, i, u, e, o. A Garhwali language scholar Mr.
Bhishma Kukreti argues that /ɑ/ is not present in the language instead of it long schwa i.e. /ə:/ is used. Although it can be accepted that southern Garhwali dialects have uses of /ɑ/ instead /ə:/. If we follow his rule of vowel length we found that there are five vowels found in Garhwali. The three are ə, ɪ, ʊ with their vowel length as /ə:/, /ɪ:/, /ʊ:/. Other two /o/ & /e/ with no vowel length. But there are 13 vowels founded by Mr.
Anoop Chandra Chandola[15] as follows /ə/, /ɪ/, /ʊ/, /ɑ/, /i/, /u/, /e/, /o/, /æ/, /ɨ/, /y/, /ɔ/, /ɯ/. His arguments can be accepted as universal (also /ɑ/ which is used only in Southern dialects but borrowed to Standard dialect for distinction purposes) . But Bhishma Kukreti's argument about vowel length is also accepted. Hence we concluded that Garhwali (Standard Garhwali in this mean) has twelve vowels (/ə/, /ɪ/, /ʊ/, /i/, /u/, /e/, /o/, /æ/, /ɨ/, /y/, /ɔ/, /ɯ/) where three has vowel length (/ə:/, /ɪ:/, /ʊ:/).
Diphthongs
There are Diphthongs in the language which makes the words distinctive than other. However diphthongs vary dialect by dialect.
| Diphthongs (IPA) | Example (IPA) | Glos |
|---|
| उइ /ui/ | कुइ /kui/ | anybody |
| इउ /iu/ | जिउ /ʤiu/ | Heart, mind |
| आइ /ai/ | बकाइ /bəkɑi/ | After-all, besides |
| अइ /əi/ | बकइ /bəkəi/ | Balance |
| आउ /au/ | बचाउ /bətʃou/ | Save (verb) |
| अउ /əu/ | बचउ /bətʃəu/ | Safty |
Triphthongs
Triphthongs are less commonly found in the language. The most common word where a triphthong may occur is ह्वाउन [English: may be] /hɯɔʊn/ (in standard Garhwali) or /hɯaʊn/ (in some dialects). However many speakers can't realize the presence of triphthongs. Other triphthongs might be discovered if more academic research were done on the language.
Consonants
Tenuis consonants
| GPA (Garhwali Phonetic Alphabet) /IPA / | Phoneme /IPA alternate/ | Phonemic category | Example /<IPA Alternate>/ (<Description>) | Hindustani language alternate of the word |
|---|
| क /kə/ | क् /k/ | voiceless velar stop | कळ्यो /kaɭyo/ (Literary meaning:- Breakfast) | नाश्ता, कलेवा |
| ग /gə/ | ग् /g/ | voiced velar stop | गरु /gərʊ/ (Literary meaning:- Heavy weight) | भारी |
| च /tʃə/ | च् /tʃ/ | voiceless palato-alveolar affricate | चिटु /tʃiʈɔ/ (Literary meaning:- White; masculine) | सफ़ेद, श्वेत |
| ज /ʤə/ | ज् /dʒ/ | voiced palato-alveolar affricate | ज्वनि /dʒɯni/ (Literary meaning:- Youngage) | जवानी, यौवन |
| ट /ʈə/ | ट् /ʈ/ | voiceless retroflex stop | टिपुण् /ʈɨpɯɳ/ (Literary meaning:- to pick; a verb) | चुगना, उठाना |
| ड /ɖə/ | ड् /ɖ/ | voiced retroflex stop | डाळु /ɖɔɭʊ/ (standard) or /ɖaɭʊ/ (in some southern dialects),(Literary meaning:- Tree) | डाल, पेड़, वृक्ष |
| त /tə/ | त् /t/ | voiceless dental stop | तिमुळ /tɨmɯɭ/ ,(Literary meaning:- Moraceae or Fig; a fruit) | अञ्जीर/अंजीर |
| द /də/ | द् /d/ | voiced dental stop | देस /deç/ ,(Literary meaning:- Foreign) [don't be confused with देस /des/; meaning "country" borrowed from Hindustani] | विदेश, परदेस, बाहरला-देस |
| प /pə/ | प् /p/ | voiceless bilabial stop | पुङ्गुड़ु /pʊŋuɽ, (Literary Meaning:- Farm or Field) | खेत or कृषि-भुमि |
| ब /bə/ | ब् /b/ | voiced bilabial stop | बाच /batʃə, (Literary Meaning:- Tongue, Phrasal & other meaning:- Voice) | जीभ, जुबान, आवाज़ |
| ल /lə/ | ल् /l/ | dental lateral approximant | लाटु /lʌʈɔ/ (Literary meaning:- idiot or mad or psycho; when used in anger. insane; when used in pity or love) | झल्ला, पागल |
| ळ /ɭə/ | ळ् /ɭ/ | retroflex lateral approximant | गढ़वाळ् /gəɖwɔɭ/ (Literary meaning:- One who holds forts,Generally used for the land of Garhwallis People,or Garhwal) | गढ़वाल |
| य /jə/ | य् /j/ | palatal approximant | यार /jar/ (Literary meaning:- Friend, commonly used as vocative word) | यार |
| व /wə/ | व् /w/ | labio-velar approximant | बिस्वास /biswɔs/ (Literary meaning: Faith) | विश्वास, भरोसा |
| म /mə/ | म् /m/ | bilabial nasal | मुसु /mʊs/ (Literary meaning: Mouse) | मूषक, चुहा |
| न /nə/ | न् /n/ | dental nasal | निकम् /nɨkəm/ (Literary meaning:- Useless, Worthless) | बेकार, व्यर्थ |
| ण /ɳə/ | ण् /ɳ/ | retroflex nasal | पाणि /pæɳ/ (Literary meaning:- Water) | पानी |
| ङ /ɳə/ | ङ् /ɳ/ | velar nasal | सोङ्ग or स्वाङ्ग /sɔɳ/ (Literary meaning:- Easy) | सरल, आसान |
| ञ /ɲə/ | ञ् /ɲ/ | palatal nasal | फञ्चु /pʰəɲtʃɔ/ (Literary meaning:- Bundle or Bunch) | पोटली |
Aspirated consonants
य्, र्, ल्, ळ्, व्, स् and the nasal consonants (म्, न्, ञ्, ङ्, ण्) have no aspirated consonantal sound.
| Alphabet /<IPA alternate>/ | Phoneme /<IPA alternate>/ | Example /<IPA alternate>/ (<Description>) | Hindustani language alternate of the word |
|---|
| ख /kʰə/ | ख् /kʰ/ | खार्यु /kʰɔryʊ/ (Literary meaning:- Enough, Sufficient) | नीरा, पर्याप्त, खासा |
| घ /gʰə/ | घ् /gʱ/ | घंघतौळ /gʱɔŋgtoɭə/ (Literary meaning:- Confusion) | दुविधा |
| छ /tʃʰə/ | छ् /tʃʰ/ | छज्जा /tʃʰəʤə/ (Literary meaning:- Balcony,Gallery) | ओलती, छज्जा |
| झ /dʒʰə/ | झ् /dʒʱ/ | झसक्याण /dʒʱəskæɳ/ (Literary meaning:- to be scared) | डर जाना |
| थ /tʰə/ | थ् /tʰ/ | थुँथुरु /tʰɯ~tʊr/ (Literary meaning: Chin) | ठोड़ी |
| ध /dʰə/ | ध् /dʱ/ | धागु /dʱɔgʊ/ (Literary meaning: Tag or thread) | धागा |
| ठ /ʈʰə/ | ठ् /ʈʰ/ | ठुङ्गार /ʈʰɯɳʌr/ (Literary meaning: Snacks) | स्नैक्स्, नमकीन |
| ढ /ɖʰə/ | ढ् /ɖʱ/ | ढिकणु /ɖʱikəɳʊ/ (Literary meaning: Coverlet) | ओढने की चादर |
| फ /pʰə/ | फ् /pʰ/ | फुकाण /pʰʊkaɳ/ (Literary meaning:- Destruction) | नाश |
| भ /bʰə/ | भ् /bʱ/ | भौळ or भ्वळ /bʱɔɭə/ (Literary meaning:- Tomorrow) | कल (आने वाला) |
Allophony
The Garhwali speakers are most familiar with allophones in the Garhwali language. For example,
फ (IPA /
pʰ/) is used as फ in the word फूळ (IPA /pʰu:ɭ/ English: flower) but pronounced as
प (IPA /
p/) in the word सफेद (IPA /səpet/, English: "white").
Allophones of aspirated consonants
Conversion to tenuis consonant or loss of aspiration
Almost every aspirated consonant exhibits allophonic variation. Each aspirated consonant can be converted into the corresponding tenuis consonant. This can be called loss of aspiration.
| Alphabet /IPA/ | Phoneme /IPA/ | Allophone /IPA/ | Example /IPA/ (Description) | Hindustani language alternate of the word |
|---|
| ख /kʰə/ | ख् /kʰ/ | क् [k] | उखरेण [ukreɳ] (Literary meaning:- pass away or die) | गुजर जाना |
| घ /gʰə/ | घ् /gʱ/ | ग् [g] | उघड़ण [ugəɽɳ] (Literary meaning:- to open or to release) | खोलना, विमोचन |
| थ /tʰə/ | थ् /tʰ/ | त् [t] | थुँथुरु [tʰɯ~tʊr] (Literary meaning:- Chin) | ठोड़ी |
| फ /pʰə/ | फ् /pʰ/ | प् [p] | उफरण [upə:ɳ] (Literary meaning:- to unbind or to undo or to unlace) | खोलना, विमोचन (बंधी हुइ चीज़ को खोलना) |
Allophone of छ
| Alphabet /<IPA alternate>/ | Phoneme /<IPA Alternate>/ | Allophone | Example /<IPA Alternate>/ (<Description>) | Hindustani Language Alternate of the word |
|---|
| छ /tʃʰə/ | छ् /tʃʰ/ | स़् [ç] | छन्नी [çəːni] (Literary meaning:- Shed; but used specially for cattle-shed, some southern dialects sometime use छ as an pure phonem so words like छन्नी pronounced as छन्नी or as स़न्नी) | छावनी,पशु-शाला |
| छ /tʃʰə/ | छ् /tʃʰ/ | च़् [c] | छ्वाड़ [cɔɽ] (Literary meaning:- Bank, Side) | छोर, किनारा |
Allophones of tenuis consonants
Conversion from voiced to voiceless consonant
A few of the tenuis consonants have allophonic variation. In some cases, a voiced consonant can be converted into the corresponding voiceless consonant.
| Alphabet /<IPA alternate>/ | Phoneme /<IPA Alternate>/ | Allophone | Phonemic Category of Allophone | Example /<IPA Alternate>/ (<Description>) | Hindustani Language Alternate of the word |
|---|
| ग /gə/ | ग् /g/ | क् [k] | voiceless velar stop | कथुग [kətuk] ,(Literary meaning:- How much) | कितना |
| द /də/ | द् /d/ | त् [t] | voiceless dental stop | सफेद [səpet] ,(Literary meaning:- White) | सफेद |
| ड् /ɖə/ | ड् /ɖ/ | ट् [ʈ] | voiceless retroflex stop | परचण्ड [pərətʃəɳʈ] ,(Literary meaning:- fierce) | प्रचण्ड |
| ब /bə/ | ब् /b/ | प् [p] | voiceless bilabial stop | खराब [kʰərap] ,(Literary meaning:- Defective) | खराब |
Other allophones
| Alphabet /<IPA alternate>/ | Phoneme /<IPA alternate>/ | Allophone | Phonemic category of allophone | Example /<IPA alternate>/ (<Description>) | Hindustani language alternate of the word |
|---|
| ज /ʤə/ | ज् /ʤ/ | य़् [j] | palatal approximant | जुग्गा [jɯggə] ,(Literary meaning:- Able) | योग्य, क़ाबिल |
| स /sə/ | स् /s/ | स़् [ç] | voiceless palatal fricative | (a) सि [çɨ] (Literary meaning:- This), (b) देस /deç/ (Literary meaning:- Foreign) | (a) यह (b)बाहरला-देस, परदेस |
| च /tʃə/ | च् /tʃ/ | च़् [c] | voiceless palatal stop | चाप [capə] (Literary meaning:- Anger) | कोप, गुस्सा |
In grammatical numbers
| Singular (written) /IPA/ | Singular (spoken) | Plural (written and spoken) |
|---|
| किताब /kitʌb/ | किताप /kitʌp/ | कितबि /kitəbi/ |
| जुराब /ʤurʌb/ | जुराप /ʤurʌp/ | जुरबि /ʤurəbi/ |
Assimilatio
Garhwali exhibits deep
Assimilation (phonology) features. Garhwali has
schwa deletion during
sandhi, as in Hindi, but in other assimilation features it differs from Hindi. An example is the phrase राधेस्याम. When we write this separately, राधे & स्याम (
IPA:- /rəːdʰe/ & /syəːm/) it retains its original phonetic feature, but when assimilated it sounds like रास्स्याम /rəːssyəːm/ or राद्स़्याम /rəːdçyəːm/.
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