garhwali grammer

Grammar

Being part of the Indo-Aryan languages, Garhwali shares many elements of its grammar with other Indo-Aryan languages, especially Rajasthani, Kashmiri and Gujarati. It shares much of its grammar with the other Pahari languages like Kumaoni and Nepali. The peculiarities of grammar in Garhwali and other Central Pahari languages exist due to the influence of the ancient language of the Khasas, the first recorded inhabitants of the region and the root of Garhwali language.

In Garhwali the verb substantive is formed from the root ach, as in both Rajasthani and Kashmiri. In Rajasthani its present tense, being derived from the Sanskrit present rcchami, I go, does not change for gender. But in Pahari and Kashmiri it must be derived from the rare Sanskrit particle *rcchitas, gone, for in these languages it is a participial tense and does change according to the gender of the subject. Thus, in the singular we have: – Here we have a relic of the old Khasas language, which, as has been said, seems to have been related to Kashmiri. Other relics of Khasa, again agreeing with north-western India, are the tendency to shorten long vowels, the practice of epenthesis, the modification of a vowel by the one which follows in the next syllable, and the frequent occurrence of de-aspiration. Thus, Khas – siknu, Garhwali – sikhnu, but Hindi – sikhna, to learn; Garhwali – inu, plural – ina, of this kind.

	Khas-Kura		Garhwali		Kashmiri		Nepali
Gloss	Masc	Fem	Masc	Fem	Masc	Fem	Masc	Fem
Am	छु	चु	छौं	छौं	थुस	छेस	छु	छु
Are	छस	छेस	छैं/छै/छन	छैं/छै/छन	छुख	छेख	छन	छन
Is	छ	छे	छ/च	छ/च	छुह	छेह	छ	छे

Linguistics

Morphology

Garhwali Pronouns

	Nominative	Oblique	Reflexive	Possessive determiner	Possessive pronoun
1st pers. sing.	मी	म्येते		म्यर	म्ये
2nd pers. sing./pl.	तुम	त्वे/तुमते		तुमुर	त्वे or तुमौ
3rd pers. sing.	व, उ, इ, सि	वीँ, वे, ए, से		वीँ, वे, ए, से	वीँ, वे, ए, से
1st pers. pl.	हम	हमते		हमर	हमौ
3rd pers. pl.	उ	उँते		उँ	ऊँ

Garhwali Cases

	Written	Spoken (Low Speed)	Spoken (fluently)
Nominative	न/ल	न/ल	न्/ल्
Vocative	रे	रे	रे
Accusative	थे/थेकी/सणि	थे/थेकी/सणि	ते/ते/सन्
Instrumental	न/ल/चे	न/ल/चे	न्/ल्/चे
Dative	खुण/बाना	कुन/बाना	कु/बान्
Ablative	न/ल/चे/मनन/चुले/बटिन	न/ल/चे/मनन/चुले/बटिन	न्/ल्/चे/मनन्/चुले/बटि
Genitive	ऑ/ई/ऊ/ऎ	ऑ/ई/ऊ/ऎ	ऑ/ई/ऊ/ऎ
Locative	म/फुण्ड/फर	म/फुण्/फर	म्/पुन्/पर्

Numerals

Number	Numeral	Written	RTGS	IPA
0	०	सुन्ने	sunne	/sunnɨ/
1	१	यऽक	yak	/yʌk/
2	२	दुई	dui	/du’ī/
3	३	तीन	teen	/tɪnə/
4	४	चार	char	/carə/
5	५	पाँच	paanch or paa~	/pʌ~ç/ or //pʌ~/
6	६	छॉ	chhaw	/tʃʰɔ/
7	७	सात	saat	/sʌtə/
8	੮	आठ	aath	/a:ṭə/
9	९	नउ	nau	/nəu/

Phonology

There are many differences from Hindi and other Indic languages, for example in the palatal approximant /j/, or the presence of a retroflex lateral /ɭ/.^{[citation needed]} Garhwali also has different allophones.

Phone or Phonem

Vowels

Monophonic vowels

There are many theories used to explains how many Monophthongs are used in the Garhwali language. The Non-Garhwali Indian scholars with some Garhwali scholars (who believes Garhwali as a dialect of Hindi) who follows Common Hindustani phonology argue that there are eight vowels found within the language are ə, ɪ, ʊ, ɑ, i, u, e, o. A Garhwali language scholar Mr. Bhishma Kukreti argues that /ɑ/ is not present in the language instead of it long schwa i.e. /ə:/ is used. Although it can be accepted that southern Garhwali dialects have uses of /ɑ/ instead /ə:/. If we follow his rule of vowel length we found that there are five vowels found in Garhwali. The three are ə, ɪ, ʊ with their vowel length as /ə:/, /ɪ:/, /ʊ:/. Other two /o/ & /e/ with no vowel length. But there are 13 vowels founded by Mr. Anoop Chandra Chandola^[15] as follows /ə/, /ɪ/, /ʊ/, /ɑ/, /i/, /u/, /e/, /o/, /æ/, /ɨ/, /y/, /ɔ/, /ɯ/. His arguments can be accepted as universal (also /ɑ/ which is used only in Southern dialects but borrowed to Standard dialect for distinction purposes) . But Bhishma Kukreti's argument about vowel length is also accepted. Hence we concluded that Garhwali (Standard Garhwali in this mean) has twelve vowels (/ə/, /ɪ/, /ʊ/, /i/, /u/, /e/, /o/, /æ/, /ɨ/, /y/, /ɔ/, /ɯ/) where three has vowel length (/ə:/, /ɪ:/, /ʊ:/).

Diphthongs

There are Diphthongs in the language which makes the words distinctive than other. However diphthongs vary dialect by dialect.

Diphthongs (IPA)	Example (IPA)	Glos
उइ /ui/	कुइ /kui/	anybody
इउ /iu/	जिउ /ʤiu/	Heart, mind
आइ /ai/	बकाइ /bəkɑi/	After-all, besides
अइ /əi/	बकइ /bəkəi/	Balance
आउ /au/	बचाउ /bətʃou/	Save (verb)
अउ /əu/	बचउ /bətʃəu/	Safty

Triphthongs

Triphthongs are less commonly found in the language. The most common word where a triphthong may occur is ह्वाउन [English: may be] /hɯɔʊn/ (in standard Garhwali) or /hɯaʊn/ (in some dialects). However many speakers can't realize the presence of triphthongs. Other triphthongs might be discovered if more academic research were done on the language.

Consonants

Tenuis consonants

GPA (Garhwali Phonetic Alphabet) /IPA /	Phoneme /IPA alternate/	Phonemic category	Example /<IPA Alternate>/ (<Description>)	Hindustani language alternate of the word
क /kə/	क् /k/	voiceless velar stop	कळ्यो /kaɭyo/ (Literary meaning:- Breakfast)	नाश्ता, कलेवा
ग /gə/	ग् /g/	voiced velar stop	गरु /gərʊ/ (Literary meaning:- Heavy weight)	भारी
च /tʃə/	च् /tʃ/	voiceless palato-alveolar affricate	चिटु /tʃiʈɔ/ (Literary meaning:- White; masculine)	सफ़ेद, श्वेत
ज /ʤə/	ज् /dʒ/	voiced palato-alveolar affricate	ज्वनि /dʒɯni/ (Literary meaning:- Youngage)	जवानी, यौवन
ट /ʈə/	ट् /ʈ/	voiceless retroflex stop	टिपुण् /ʈɨpɯɳ/ (Literary meaning:- to pick; a verb)	चुगना, उठाना
ड /ɖə/	ड् /ɖ/	voiced retroflex stop	डाळु /ɖɔɭʊ/ (standard) or /ɖaɭʊ/ (in some southern dialects),(Literary meaning:- Tree)	डाल, पेड़, वृक्ष
त /tə/	त् /t/	voiceless dental stop	तिमुळ /tɨmɯɭ/ ,(Literary meaning:- Moraceae or Fig; a fruit)	अञ्जीर/अंजीर
द /də/	द् /d/	voiced dental stop	देस /deç/ ,(Literary meaning:- Foreign) [don't be confused with देस /des/; meaning "country" borrowed from Hindustani]	विदेश, परदेस, बाहरला-देस
प /pə/	प् /p/	voiceless bilabial stop	पुङ्गुड़ु /pʊŋuɽ, (Literary Meaning:- Farm or Field)	खेत or कृषि-भुमि
ब /bə/	ब् /b/	voiced bilabial stop	बाच /batʃə, (Literary Meaning:- Tongue, Phrasal & other meaning:- Voice)	जीभ, जुबान, आवाज़
ल /lə/	ल् /l/	dental lateral approximant	लाटु /lʌʈɔ/ (Literary meaning:- idiot or mad or psycho; when used in anger. insane; when used in pity or love)	झल्ला, पागल
ळ /ɭə/	ळ् /ɭ/	retroflex lateral approximant	गढ़वाळ् /gəɖwɔɭ/ (Literary meaning:- One who holds forts,Generally used for the land of Garhwallis People,or Garhwal)	गढ़वाल
य /jə/	य् /j/	palatal approximant	यार /jar/ (Literary meaning:- Friend, commonly used as vocative word)	यार
व /wə/	व् /w/	labio-velar approximant	बिस्वास /biswɔs/ (Literary meaning: Faith)	विश्वास, भरोसा
म /mə/	म् /m/	bilabial nasal	मुसु /mʊs/ (Literary meaning: Mouse)	मूषक, चुहा
न /nə/	न् /n/	dental nasal	निकम् /nɨkəm/ (Literary meaning:- Useless, Worthless)	बेकार, व्यर्थ
ण /ɳə/	ण् /ɳ/	retroflex nasal	पाणि /pæɳ/ (Literary meaning:- Water)	पानी
ङ /ɳə/	ङ् /ɳ/	velar nasal	सोङ्ग or स्वाङ्ग /sɔɳ/ (Literary meaning:- Easy)	सरल, आसान
ञ /ɲə/	ञ् /ɲ/	palatal nasal	फञ्चु /pʰəɲtʃɔ/ (Literary meaning:- Bundle or Bunch)	पोटली

Aspirated consonants

य्, र्, ल्, ळ्, व्, स् and the nasal consonants (म्, न्, ञ्, ङ्, ण्) have no aspirated consonantal sound.

Alphabet /<IPA alternate>/	Phoneme /<IPA alternate>/	Example /<IPA alternate>/ (<Description>)	Hindustani language alternate of the word
ख /kʰə/	ख् /kʰ/	खार्यु /kʰɔryʊ/ (Literary meaning:- Enough, Sufficient)	नीरा, पर्याप्त, खासा
घ /gʰə/	घ् /gʱ/	घंघतौळ /gʱɔŋgtoɭə/ (Literary meaning:- Confusion)	दुविधा
छ /tʃʰə/	छ् /tʃʰ/	छज्जा /tʃʰəʤə/ (Literary meaning:- Balcony,Gallery)	ओलती, छज्जा
झ /dʒʰə/	झ् /dʒʱ/	झसक्याण /dʒʱəskæɳ/ (Literary meaning:- to be scared)	डर जाना
थ /tʰə/	थ् /tʰ/	थुँथुरु /tʰɯ~tʊr/ (Literary meaning: Chin)	ठोड़ी
ध /dʰə/	ध् /dʱ/	धागु /dʱɔgʊ/ (Literary meaning: Tag or thread)	धागा
ठ /ʈʰə/	ठ् /ʈʰ/	ठुङ्गार /ʈʰɯɳʌr/ (Literary meaning: Snacks)	स्नैक्स्, नमकीन
ढ /ɖʰə/	ढ् /ɖʱ/	ढिकणु /ɖʱikəɳʊ/ (Literary meaning: Coverlet)	ओढने की चादर
फ /pʰə/	फ् /pʰ/	फुकाण /pʰʊkaɳ/ (Literary meaning:- Destruction)	नाश
भ /bʰə/	भ् /bʱ/	भौळ or भ्वळ /bʱɔɭə/ (Literary meaning:- Tomorrow)	कल (आने वाला)

Allophony

The Garhwali speakers are most familiar with allophones in the Garhwali language. For example, फ (IPA /pʰ/) is used as फ in the word फूळ (IPA /pʰu:ɭ/ English: flower) but pronounced as प (IPA /p/) in the word सफेद (IPA /səpet/, English: "white").

Allophones of aspirated consonants

Conversion to tenuis consonant or loss of aspiration

Almost every aspirated consonant exhibits allophonic variation. Each aspirated consonant can be converted into the corresponding tenuis consonant. This can be called loss of aspiration.

Alphabet /IPA/	Phoneme /IPA/	Allophone /IPA/	Example /IPA/ (Description)	Hindustani language alternate of the word
ख /kʰə/	ख् /kʰ/	क् [k]	उखरेण [ukreɳ] (Literary meaning:- pass away or die)	गुजर जाना
घ /gʰə/	घ् /gʱ/	ग् [g]	उघड़ण [ugəɽɳ] (Literary meaning:- to open or to release)	खोलना, विमोचन
थ /tʰə/	थ् /tʰ/	त् [t]	थुँथुरु [tʰɯ~tʊr] (Literary meaning:- Chin)	ठोड़ी
फ /pʰə/	फ् /pʰ/	प् [p]	उफरण [upə:ɳ] (Literary meaning:- to unbind or to undo or to unlace)	खोलना, विमोचन (बंधी हुइ चीज़ को खोलना)

Allophone of छ

Alphabet /<IPA alternate>/	Phoneme /<IPA Alternate>/	Allophone	Example /<IPA Alternate>/ (<Description>)	Hindustani Language Alternate of the word
छ /tʃʰə/	छ् /tʃʰ/	स़् [ç]	छन्नी [çəːni] (Literary meaning:- Shed; but used specially for cattle-shed, some southern dialects sometime use छ as an pure phonem so words like छन्नी pronounced as छन्नी or as स़न्नी)	छावनी,पशु-शाला
छ /tʃʰə/	छ् /tʃʰ/	च़् [c]	छ्वाड़ [cɔɽ] (Literary meaning:- Bank, Side)	छोर, किनारा

Allophones of tenuis consonants

Conversion from voiced to voiceless consonant

A few of the tenuis consonants have allophonic variation. In some cases, a voiced consonant can be converted into the corresponding voiceless consonant.

Alphabet /<IPA alternate>/	Phoneme /<IPA Alternate>/	Allophone	Phonemic Category of Allophone	Example /<IPA Alternate>/ (<Description>)	Hindustani Language Alternate of the word
ग /gə/	ग् /g/	क् [k]	voiceless velar stop	कथुग [kətuk] ,(Literary meaning:- How much)	कितना
द /də/	द् /d/	त् [t]	voiceless dental stop	सफेद [səpet] ,(Literary meaning:- White)	सफेद
ड् /ɖə/	ड् /ɖ/	ट् [ʈ]	voiceless retroflex stop	परचण्ड [pərətʃəɳʈ] ,(Literary meaning:- fierce)	प्रचण्ड
ब /bə/	ब् /b/	प् [p]	voiceless bilabial stop	खराब [kʰərap] ,(Literary meaning:- Defective)	खराब

Other allophones

Alphabet /<IPA alternate>/	Phoneme /<IPA alternate>/	Allophone	Phonemic category of allophone	Example /<IPA alternate>/ (<Description>)	Hindustani language alternate of the word
ज /ʤə/	ज् /ʤ/	य़् [j]	palatal approximant	जुग्गा [jɯggə] ,(Literary meaning:- Able)	योग्य, क़ाबिल
स /sə/	स् /s/	स़् [ç]	voiceless palatal fricative	(a) सि [çɨ] (Literary meaning:- This), (b) देस /deç/ (Literary meaning:- Foreign)	(a) यह (b)बाहरला-देस, परदेस
च /tʃə/	च् /tʃ/	च़् [c]	voiceless palatal stop	चाप [capə] (Literary meaning:- Anger)	कोप, गुस्सा

In grammatical numbers

Singular (written) /IPA/	Singular (spoken)	Plural (written and spoken)
किताब /kitʌb/	किताप /kitʌp/	कितबि /kitəbi/
जुराब /ʤurʌb/	जुराप /ʤurʌp/	जुरबि /ʤurəbi/

Assimilatio

Garhwali exhibits deep Assimilation (phonology) features. Garhwali has schwa deletion during sandhi, as in Hindi, but in other assimilation features it differs from Hindi. An example is the phrase राधेस्याम. When we write this separately, राधे & स्याम (IPA:- /rəːdʰe/ & /syəːm/) it retains its original phonetic feature, but when assimilated it sounds like रास्स्याम /rəːssyəːm/ or राद्स़्याम /rəːdçyəːm/.

garhwali language

Garhwali language is a Central Pahari language belonging to the Northern Zone of Indo-Aryan languages. It is primarily spoken by the Garhwali people who are from the north-western Garhwal Division of the northern Indian state of Uttarakhand in the IndianHimalayas.

The Central Pahari languages include Garhwali and Kumauni (spoken in the Kumaun region of Uttarakhand). Garhwali, like Kumauni, has many regional dialects spoken in different places in Uttarakhand. The script used for Garhwali is Devanagari.^[4]

Garhwali is one of the 325 recognised languages of India^[5] spoken by over 2,267,314^[6] people in Tehri Garhwal, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Rudraprayag and Dehradun districts of Garhwal division in the state Uttarakhand.^[7] Garhwali is also spoken by Garhwali migrants to other parts of India including Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. According to various estimates, there are at least 2.5 million Garhwali migrants living in Delhi and the National Capital Region.

However, due to a number of reasons, Garhwali is one of the languages which is shrinking very rapidly. UNESCO's Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger designates Garhwali as a language which is in the unsafe category and requires consistent conservation efforts.^[8]

Almost all people who can speak and understand Garhwali can also speak and understand Hindi, one of the most commonly spoken languages of India.

Development of Garhwali

Princely flag of Kingdom of Garhwal.

Location of Uttarakhand within India.

In the middle period of the course of development of Indo-Aryan languages, there were many prakrit. Of these, the "Khas Prakrit" is believed to be the source of Garhwali^[9][10] [6]. The early form of Garhwali can be traced to the 10th century which is found in numismatics, royal seals, inscriptional writings on copper plates and temple stones containing royal orders and grants. One such early example is the temple grant inscription of King Jagatpal at Dev Prayag (1335 AD). Most of the Garhwali literature is preserved in folk form, handed down verbally from generation to generation but since the 18th century, literary traditions are flourishing.^[11] Till the 17th century, Garhwal was always a sovereign nation under the Garhwali Kings.^[12] Naturally, Garhwali was the official language of the Garhwal Kingdom^[12] for hundreds of years under the Panwar (Shah) Kings and even before them, until the Gurkhas captured Garhwal and subsequently the British occupied half of Garhwal, later called British Garhwal which was included under the United Province. Garhwal Kingdom acceded to the Union of India as a part of Uttar Pradesh in 1949.

garhwali Dialects

• Srinagariya (सिरिनगरिया) – classical Garhwali spoken in erstwhile royal capital, Srinagar, accepted as Standard Garhwali by most scholars.^[13]
• Tihriyali (टीरियाळि)/Gangapariya (गंगपरिया) – spoken in Tehri Garhwal.
• Badhani (बधाणी)- spoken in Chamoli Garhwal.
• Dessaulya(दसौल्या)
• Lohabbya (लोहब्या)
• Majh-Kumaiya (मांझ-कुमैया)- spoken at the border of Garhwal and Kumaon.
• Nagpuriya (नागपुर्या)- spoken in Rudraprayag district.
• Rathi (राठी)- spoken in Rath area of Pauri Garhwal.
• Salani (सलाणी)- spoken in Talla Salan, Malla Salan and Ganga Salan parganas of Pauri.
• Ranwalti (रंवाल्टी)- spoken in Ranwain (रंवाँई), the Yamuna valley of Uttarkashi.
• Bangani (बंगाणी)- spoken in Bangaan (बंगाण) area of Uttarkashi.
• Parvati – reportedly not mutually intelligible with other dialects.
• Jaunpuri (जौनपुरी)- spoken in Uttarkashi and Tehri districts.
• Gangadi (गंगाड़ी) (spoken in Uttarkashi)
• Chaundkoti चौंदकोटी- spoken in Pauri.

(Linguistically unrelated but geographically neighbouring languages include: the Tibeto-Burman language Marchi/Bhotia – spoken by Marchas, neighbouring Tibet.)

Dialects & Standard Garhwali[edit]

• Standard Garhwalis & more of its dialects have an accusative case सणि (/səɳi/) while South Garhwalis dialects have different word ते (/te/) for accusative case ( Maybe borrowed from Awadhi or Braj). But in Standard Garhwali or High Garhwali ते is used as oblique case.

Sources of vocabulary[edit]

The basic vocabulary and language of primitive Garhwali is said to have been developed on the language used by the inhabitants of the pre-historic age belonging to Negrito Australoid, Dravidian and Mongoloid ethnic groups.^[14] These are primarily the Munda, Bhil, Naag, Yaksha, etc. The other non-Aryan tribes from the Northwest, such as Kunind, Kirat, Shak, Hun, Gurjar, Pisach, Darad also contributed to its vocabulary and influenced the language. The languages of the powerful Khasas, who still form a majority in Garhwal, is believed to be the source of Garhwali language.^[12] The later Aryans with their Vedic Sanskrit and Prakrit languages helped in adding to the vocabulary. Subsequently, Saurseni and Rajasthani Apbhransha had considerable influence in shaping the Garhwali Language. During the Medieval period, due to increasing interaction with outside regions, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Marathi, Bengali words also crept into the repertoire of spoken Garhwali. Contact with the Delhi rulers resulted in intrusion of Persian, Arabic, Turkish and English words. From the 18th century, however, Hindi started exerting the maximum impact, not only on enriching the vocabulary, but also on the grammatical formation and syntax of the Garhwali language. Nevertheless, more than one third of the vocabulary remained of native base and indigenous structure

n September 1880 a landslide ('the landslip of 1880') occurred at the north end of the town, burying 151 people. The first known landslide had occurred in 1866, and in 1879 there was a larger one at the same spot, Alma Hill, but "the great slip occurred in the following year, on Saturday 18 September 1880."^[9]

"Two days preceding the slip there was heavy rain, ... 20 inches (510 mm) to 35 in (890 mm) fell during the 40 hours ending on Saturday morning, and the downpour still lasted and continued for hours after the slip. This heavy fall naturally brought down streams of water from the hill side, some endangering the Victoria Hotel, ... (which) was not the only building threatened ... Bell's shop, the Volunteer Orderly Room and the Hindu (Naina Devi) temple were scenes of labour with a view to diverting streams. At a quarter to two the landslip occurred burying those in and around the buildings mentioned above."^[9]

The number of dead and missing were 108 Indian and 43 British nationals. (See poem by Hannah Battersby on the page Literary references to Nainital.) The Assembly Rooms and the Naina Devi Temple were destroyed in the disaster. A recreation area known as 'The Flats' was later built on the site and a new temple was erected. To prevent further disasters, storm water drains were constructed and building bylaws were made stricter.

history of nainital

The Kumaon Hills came under British rule after the Anglo-Nepalese War (1814–16). The hill station town of Naini Tal was founded only in 1841, with the construction of the first European house (Pilgrim Lodge) by P. Barron, a sugar trader from Shahjahanpur. In his memoir, he wrote: "It is by far the best site I have witnessed in the course of a 1,500 miles (2,400 km) trek in the Himalayas."^[8] In 1846, when a Captain Madden of the Bengal Artillery visited Naini Tal, he recorded that "houses were rapidly springing up in most parts of the settlement: some towards the crest of the limitary ranges were nearly 7,500 ft (2,300 m) above sea level: the rugged and woody Anyarpatta Aashish (Anyar-patt – in Kumaoni means – complete blackout. The reason for this nomenclature by the locals was because there were minimal sun rays due to its location and dense forests) was being gradually planted and that the favourite sites were on the undulating tract of forest land which stretched back from the head of the lake to the base of China and Deopatta (Camel's Hump). The church, St. John in the Wilderness, was one of the earliest buildings in Nainital, followed by Belvedere, Alma lodge, Ashdale Cottage(1860)..."^[9] Soon, the town became a health resort favoured by British soldiers and by colonial officials and their families trying to escape the heat of the plains. Later, the town became the summer residence of the governor of the United Provinces.